Aims and learning outcomes
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- Introduction
- Aims and learning outcomes - distinction
- Hints, tips and suggestions
- Summary
- Further information
1. Introduction
"Hi Jenny, fancy coming for a walk?"
"Well yes, but how far is it? How long will it take? Where are we going? What will we see and do en route? Have I been there before? Is it on the flat or uphill? What clothing & shoes do I need? Is it a walk, a hike or a marathon? Why are we going wherever it is?"
"Oh, don't worry, you will know when you get there."
Butcher et al (2006), p40.
Most of us would not set out on any journey without being clear about the answers to most of Jenny's questions. The same applies to a learning journey; we need to supply a range of information about where we are going and what is required, and we usually do this in the form of aims and learning outcomes. The principal benefit of defining aims and learning outcomes is they provide guidelines and a common understanding by course providers (lecturers/teachers) for course takers and users (students, employers, and others) of what is to be achieved - the nature of the task at hand. Aims and learning outcomes provide students with a guideline to their teachers' expectations and should also provide an idea of the standards demanded of them - what students should know; what students should be able to do; the skills students should be developing; the desired attitudes and approaches; etc.
Writing aims and learning outcomes is not easy; it is not an exact science. This section will give a short introduction to the topic, but we recommend that you do some of the additional reading.
Unfortunately there are many terms that are used to describe what Allan (1996) neatly calls educational intent: learning outcomes; teaching objectives; competencies; behavioural objectives; goals; aims. This section will focus on aims and learning outcomes: see Allan's paper for further information.
2. Aims and learning outcomes - distinction
Aims are broad and general statements of educational intent, and should inform students of the overall purpose of each aspect of a course (programme or module). They are often written in provider (lecturer/tutor) rather than receiver (student) terms. Learning outcomes, on the other hand, are more focused and indicate what a student will be expected to be able to do at various points during and/or at the end of a course of study. Typically, learning outcomes specify the minimum requirement at the point of assessment for the award of credit; threshold requirements. They may refer to subject specific concepts and skills, or more general (transferable / generic) attributes and abilities. Whatever, they should be written in student rather than lecturer terms. They are characterised by being 'SMART':
- S pecific - provide detail about particular aspects of the expectations.
- M eaningful - written in language that is understandable to students and other staff.
- A ppropriate - ‘fit for purpose' - suit the learners and satisfy the required standards.
- R ealistic - are achievable given time constraints, available resources etc.
- T estable - some measure of progress/achievement towards them can be made.
3. Hints, tips and suggestions
Taxonomies, domains & hierarchies
There have been various attempts to describe and categorise what students should be able to do as a result of a period of education - these are often called educational taxonomies. All of these have merit and value but none seem to apply to all areas and aspects of higher education. Anderson and Krathwohl (eds., 2001) include description of 19 such frameworks in addition to developing a revised and more inclusive version of the Bloom et al (1956) taxonomy. Whilst the Anderson & Krathwohl framework is more carefully constructed and comprehensive, it is too elaborate for the purposes of this briefing paper. For simplicity we will use a version of the Bloom taxonomy; much used (and abused) in HE. In essence, Bloom and co-workers described student achievement in three aspects (or domains) of HE studies:
- Intellectual capability - what students know and what they can do with what they know.
- Skills - both subject specific and more general/transferable.
- Attitudes and approaches - ways of thinking and behaving in the discipline (and the professions).
Within each of these three aspects a progression or hierarchy of demand and expectation on the student was defined. For example, progression within the attitudinal/approach area could be exemplified by a change in a history student from realising the need for a critical approach to the evaluation of sources of evidence to habitually exhibiting that attitude; or for a medical student being aware of what is good practice in terms of bedside manner to exhibiting that behaviour as a matter of course. The change here is in the mindset rather than developing understanding or the ability to perform a skill - those fit under the other aspects. In terms of skills this may be seen as a change from the ability to use an instrument or piece of equipment given a set of detailed instructions to selection and expert use of equipment in a novel, problem-solving, situation.
Writing learning outcomes
Writing learning outcomes will make you think about:
- What abilities and attributes will students bring to the course?
- How far along each hierarchy describes below will you expect your students to progress to.
In addition, once you are clear about the outcomes, selecting the content and teaching/learning methods that enable students to attain the expectations become clearer - as are the assessment methods that need to be used to check that the students have achieved the outcomes.
Writing learning outcomes - intellectual capability
A hierarchy of six levels of intellectual demand is described in table below, starting at the lowest expectation. Recall, without meaning or realising the significance of information would be seen as the lowest demand, whilst the ability to judge, compare and discriminate could be seen as the most demanding. Each level on the progression is defined and words that are useful for writing learning outcomes are given; you will note that they are all verbs, as students are expected to be able to do these things.
Knowledge (Recalls from prior experience) | Ability to recall specific information, to describe known ways of dealing with the information, or to enunciate previously learned general principles or theories. |
defines, describes, identifies, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognises | |
Comprehension (Understands - without necessarily | Ability to demonstrate one's understanding by translating or paraphrasing, interpreting information or extrapolating from given data in order to determine likely implications or effects. |
classifies, converts, distinguishes between, explains, extends, generalises, paraphrases, predicts, | |
Application (Uses concepts and abstractions in both known and novel situations) | Ability to apply abstract principles to particular and concrete situations. |
arranges, classifies, computes, demonstrates, employs, extrapolates, modifies, operates, predicts, | |
Analysis (Breaking down into components | Clarification of a complex situation by breaking it down into its constituent parts, identifying any relationships between the parts and identifying any organisational structure inherent in the original situation or set of information. |
deduces, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, estimates, experiments, identifies, infers, | |
Synthesis (Combining elements and aspects | Bringing together a number of facts or ideas to create a new pattern or structure such as a unique communication, a proposed set of operations or a set of abstract principles which are derived from the original information. |
combines, compiles, composes, constructs, creates, designs, formulates, generates, hypothesises, | |
Evaluation (Judging value and fitness for | Judgements about the value of material or methods for a given purpose. |
appraises, assesses, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticises, discriminates, evaluates, judges, | |
Writing learning outcomes - attitudes
A useful way to think about progression in attitudes and approaches is:
Unconscious incompetence. | Not knowing what is required/expected. |
Conscious incompetence. | Aware of the need but not the usual behaviour. |
Conscious competence. | Able to demonstrate/enact when thinking about it. |
Unconscious competence. | Demonstrate/enact without thinking - habitual behaviour. |
And the learning outcomes could be written as transitions from one state to another, for example:
- Away from - the lecturer has given me all the necessary information and skills.
- Towards - in professional life, I must study and learn new techniques from a variety of sources.
Writing learning outcomes - skills
Similarly, the following may provide a valid way to recognise progression in developing a particular skill:
Cannot do. | Not skilled. |
Can do, effectively, with instruction. | Novice |
Can do, effectively, without instruction. | Competent. |
Can write the instructions for doing | Expert |
4. Summary
In essence then, learning outcomes tell us what a successful student of a course will be able to do on completion of the learning opportunities provided. The most important thing is to talk these through with the students rather than worry about exact wording, taxonomies or domains. Learning outcomes are a guideline and a common understanding of what is to be achieved.
5. Further information
In this multimedia presentation, Chris Butcher outlines how this taxonomy of educational goals provides a framework for defining and conveying learning outcomes for teaching.
Anderson L.W., & Krathwohl, D.R., (eds.), 2001. A taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and assessing: a revision of Bloom's educational objectives. Longman.
Butcher, C., Davies, C. & Highton, M., 2006. Designing Learning: from module outline to effective teaching. Routledge, London. (Chapter 3 provides a useful overview).
Moon, J., 2002. The module & programme development handbook. Kogan Page.
Toohey, S., 1999. Designing courses for higher education. Buckingham: SRHE/OUP.
Turner, D., 2002. Designing and delivering modules. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development.
All three of these books contain chapters dealing with outcomes and or learning objectives.
A wide range of guides and ideas, including Writing learning outcomes: some suggestions (and see the resources & publications section too) are available at the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development.
Allan, J., 1996. Learning Outcomes in Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education. 21(1), p93-108.
Hussey, T., & Smith, P., 2003. The Uses of Learning Outcomes. Teaching in Higher Education. 8(3), p357-368.
The above are two articles that set the scene but also show some of the problems of using learning outcomes in HE.